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RSS/ATOM 記事 (74111)
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Justification Logic
from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(2015-11-21 9:39)
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[Revised entry by Sergei Artemov and Melvin Fitting on November 20, 2015.
Changes to: Main text, Bibliography, notes.html, supplement.html]
You may say, "I know that Abraham Lincoln was a tall man. " In turn you may be asked how you know. You would almost certainly not reply semantically, Hintikka-style, that Abraham Lincoln was tall in all situations compatible with your knowledge. Instead you would more likely say, "I read about Abraham Lincoln's height in several books, and I have seen photographs of him next to other people. " One certifies knowledge by providing a...
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Backward Causation
from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(2015-11-19 14:54)
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[Revised entry by Jan Faye on November 18, 2015.
Changes to: Main text, Bibliography]
Sometimes also called retro-causation. A common feature of our world seems to be that in all cases of causation, the cause and the effect are placed in time so that the cause precedes its effect temporally. Our normal understanding of causation assumes this feature to such a degree that we intuitively have great difficulty imagining things differently. The notion of backward causation, however, stands for the idea that the temporal order of cause and effect is a mere contingent feature and that there may be cases where the cause is causally prior to its effect but where the temporal order of the cause and effect is...
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Moral Epistemology
from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(2015-11-19 14:22)
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[Revised entry by Richmond Campbell on November 18, 2015.
Changes to: Main text, Bibliography]
How is moral knowledge possible? This question is central in moral epistemology and marks a cluster of problems. The most important are the following. Sociological: The best explanation of the depth of moral...
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Black Reparations
from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(2015-11-19 11:36)
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[Revised entry by Bernard Boxill on November 18, 2015.
Changes to: Main text, Bibliography]
States have long demanded reparations from other states at the end of wars. More recently non-state actors such as the Aborigines of Australia, the Maori of New Zealand, and the Native Americans of North America are demanding the return of their tribal lands from Europeans as reparation; Eastern Europeans dispossessed by socialist governments are demanding the return of their property as reparation; and African Americans are demanding reparation for the injuries of slavery and its aftermath. The last of these demands is our subject....
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Rule Consequentialism
from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(2015-11-19 10:41)
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[Revised entry by Brad Hooker on November 18, 2015.
Changes to: Main text, Bibliography]
The theory of morality we can call full rule-consequentialism selects rules solely in terms of the goodness of their consequences and then claims that these rules determine which kinds of acts are morally wrong. George Berkeley was arguably the first rule-consequentialist. He wrote, "In framing the general laws of nature, it is granted we must be entirely guided by the public good of mankind, but not in the ordinary moral actions of our lives. ... The rule is framed with respect to the good of mankind; but our practice must be always shaped immediately by the rule."...
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Scottish Philosophy in the 19th Century
from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(2015-11-19 9:45)
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[Revised entry by Gordon Graham on November 18, 2015.
Changes to: Main text, Bibliography]
Philosophical debate in 19th century Scotland was very vigorous, its agenda being set in large part by the impact of Kant and German Idealism on the philosophical tradition of the Scottish Enlightenment. The principal figures are Thomas Brown, Sir William Hamilton, James Frederick Ferrier and Alexander Bain, and later in the century, the so-called "Scottish Idealists" notably James Hutchison Stirling, Edward Caird, and D.G. Ritchie. The...
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Mechanisms in Science
from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(2015-11-19 4:47)
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[New Entry by Carl Craver and James Tabery on November 18, 2015.]
Around the turn of the twenty-first century, what has come to be called the new mechanical philosophy (or, for brevity, the new mechanism) emerged as a framework for thinking about the philosophical assumptions underlying many areas of science, especially in sciences such as biology, neuroscience, and psychology. In this entry, we introduce and summarize the distinctive features of this framework, and we discuss how it addresses a range of classic issues in the philosophy of science, including explanation, metaphysics, the relations between scientific disciplines, and the...
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Thomas Jefferson
from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(2015-11-18 15:58)
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[New Entry by M. Andrew Holowchak on November 17, 2015.]
Scholars in general have not taken seriously Thomas Jefferson (1743 - 1826) as a philosopher, perhaps because he never wrote a formal philosophical treatise. Yet Jefferson was a prodigious writer, who left behind a rich philosophical legacy in his declarations, presidential messages and addresses, public papers, numerous bills, letters to philosophically minded correspondents, and his only book, Notes on the State of Virginia. Scrutiny of those writings reveals a refined political philosophy as well as a systemic approach to a philosophy of education in partnership with it. Jefferson's political philosophy and his views on education were undergirded and guided by a consistent and progressive vision of humans, their place in the cosmos, and the good life that owed much to ancient philosophers like Epictetus, Antoninus, and Cicero; to the ethical precepts of Jesus; to coetaneous Scottish empiricists like Francis Hutcheson and ...
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Locke On Freedom
from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(2015-11-17 12:56)
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[New Entry by Samuel Rickless on November 16, 2015.]
John Locke's views on the nature of freedom of action and freedom of will have played an influential role in the philosophy of action and in moral psychology. Locke offers distinctive accounts of action and forbearance, of will and willing, of voluntary (as opposed to involuntary) actions and forbearances, and of freedom (as opposed to necessity). These positions lead him to dismiss the traditional question of free will as absurd, but also raise new questions, such as whether we are (or can be) free in respect of willing and whether we are free to will what we will, questions to which he gives divergent...
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Hermeneutics, Legal
from Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(2015-11-17 9:45)
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Legal Hermeneutics The question of how best to determine the meaning of a given text (legal or otherwise) has always been the chief concern of the general field of inquiry known as hermeneutics. Legal hermeneutics is rooted in philosophical hermeneutics and takes as its subject matter the nature of legal meaning. Legal hermeneutics asks the … Continue reading Hermeneutics, Legal →
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