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Formal Epistemology  from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy  (2015-4-29 14:20)

[Revised entry by Jonathan Weisberg on April 28, 2015. Changes to: Main text, Bibliography] Formal epistemology explores knowledge and reasoning using "formal" tools, tools from math and logic. For example, a formal epistemologist might use probability theory to explain how scientific reasoning works. Or she might use modal logic to defend a particular theory of knowledge. The questions that drive formal epistemology are often the same as those that drive "informal" epistemology. What is knowledge, and how is it different from mere opinion? What separates...

Proclus  from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy  (2015-4-29 13:44)

[Revised entry by Christoph Helmig and Carlos Steel on April 28, 2015. Changes to: Main text, Bibliography] Proclus of Athens (*412 - 485 C.E.) was the most authoritative philosopher of late antiquity and played a crucial role in the transmission of Platonic philosophy from antiquity to the Middle Ages. For almost fifty years, he was head or 'successor' (diadochos, sc. of Plato) of the Platonic 'Academy' in Athens. Being an exceptionally productive writer, he composed commentaries on Aristotle, Euclid and Plato,...

The Normativity of Meaning and Content  from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy  (2015-4-28 14:06)

[Revised entry by Kathrin Glüer and Åsa Wikforss on April 27, 2015. Changes to: Main text, Bibliography, notes.html] There is a long tradition of thinking of language as conventional in its nature, dating back at least to Aristotle (De Interpretatione). By appealing to the role of conventions, it is thought, we can distinguish linguistic signs, the meaningful use of words, from mere natural 'signs'. During the last century the thesis that language is essentially conventional has played a central role within philosophy of language, and has even been called...

Feminist Environmental Philosophy  from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy  (2015-4-28 13:57)

[Revised entry by Karen J. Warren on April 27, 2015. Changes to: Main text] Early positions of "feminist environmental philosophy" focused mostly on ethical perspectives on the interconnections among women, nonhuman animals, and nature (e.g., Carol Adams 1990; Deborah Slicer 1991). As it matured, references to feminist environmental philosophy became what it is now - an umbrella term for a variety of different, sometimes incompatible, philosophical perspectives on interconnections among women of diverse races/ethnicities, socioeconomic statuses, and geographic locations, on the one hand, and nonhuman animals and nature, on the other. For the purposes of this...

Vasubandhu  from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy  (2015-4-28 13:01)

[Revised entry by Jonathan C. Gold on April 27, 2015. Changes to: Main text, Bibliography] The Buddhist philosopher Vasubandhu (4th to 5th century C.E.) was a great light at the peak of India's resplendent Gupta empire.[1] His works display his mastery of Buddhist as well as non-Buddhist thought of the day, and he made his mark, successively, upon three Buddhist scholastic...

Computer Simulations in Science  from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy  (2015-4-24 11:01)

[Revised entry by Eric Winsberg on April 23, 2015. Changes to: Main text, Bibliography] Computer simulation was pioneered as a scientific tool in meteorology and nuclear physics in the period directly following World War II, and since then has become indispensable in a growing number of disciplines. The list of sciences that make extensive use of computer simulation has grown to include astrophysics, particle physics, materials science, engineering, fluid mechanics, climate science, evolutionary biology, ecology, economics, decision theory, medicine,...

Moses Mendelssohn  from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy  (2015-4-23 9:19)

[Revised entry by Daniel Dahlstrom on April 22, 2015. Changes to: Main text, Bibliography] Moses Mendelssohn (b. 1729, d. 1786) was a creative and eclectic thinker whose writings on metaphysics and aesthetics, political theory and theology, together with his Jewish heritage, placed him at the focal point of the German Enlightenment for over three decades. While Mendelssohn found himself at home with a metaphysics derived from writings of Leibniz, Wolff, and Baumgarten, he was also one of his age's most accomplished literary critics. His highly regarded pieces on...

Definitions  from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy  (2015-4-21 12:34)

[Revised entry by Anil Gupta on April 20, 2015. Changes to: Main text, Bibliography, notes.html] Definitions have interested philosophers since ancient times. Plato's early dialogues portray Socrates raising questions about definitions (e.g., in the Euthyphro, "What is piety?") - questions that seem at once profound and elusive. The key step in Anselm's "Ontological Proof" for the existence of God is the definition of "God," and the same holds of Descartes's version of the argument in his...

Molecular Biology  from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy  (2015-4-21 10:01)

[Revised entry by James Tabery, Monika Piotrowska, and Lindley Darden on April 20, 2015. Changes to: Main text, Bibliography] The field of molecular biology studies macromolecules and the macromolecular mechanisms found in living things, such as the molecular nature of the gene and its mechanisms of gene replication, mutation, and expression. Given the fundamental importance of these macromolecular mechanisms throughout the history of molecular biology, a philosophical focus on the concept of a mechanism generates the clearest picture of molecular biology's history, concepts, and case studies utilized by philosophers of science....

Henricus Regius  from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy  (2015-4-21 9:55)

[Revised entry by Desmond Clarke on April 20, 2015. Changes to: Main text, Bibliography] Henricus Regius (in Dutch: Hendrik de Roy) may be recognised today primarily as one of Descartes' correspondents. However, he was also the author of a textbook of natural philosophy, Fundamenta physices (1646), which offered a significant alternative to Cartesian epistemology and metaphysics. His correspondence with Descartes, and his simultaneous controversy with G. Voetius during the 1640s, reflected Regius' efforts to establish his intellectual independence...