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Epistemology in Classical Indian Philosophy  from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy  (2015-1-23 12:14)

[Revised entry by Stephen Phillips on January 22, 2015. Changes to: Main text, Bibliography] Theory of knowledge, pramāa-śāstra, is a rich genre of Sanskrit literature, spanning almost twenty centuries, carried out in texts belonging to distinct schools of philosophy. Debate across school occurs especially on epistemological issues, but no author writes on knowledge independently of the sort of metaphysical commitment that defines the various classical systems...

Absolute and Relational Theories of Space and Motion  from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy  (2015-1-23 9:49)

[Revised entry by Nick Huggett and Carl Hoefer on January 22, 2015. Changes to: Main text, Bibliography, notes.html] Since antiquity, natural philosophers have struggled to comprehend the nature of three tightly interconnected concepts: space, time, and motion. A proper understanding of motion, in particular, has been seen to be crucial for deciding questions about the natures of space and time, and their interconnections. Since the time of Newton and Leibniz, philosophers' struggles to comprehend these concepts have often appeared to take the form of a dispute between...

Methodological Individualism  from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy  (2015-1-22 9:21)

[Revised entry by Joseph Heath on January 21, 2015. Changes to: Main text, Bibliography] This doctrine was introduced as a methodological precept for the social sciences by Max Weber, most importantly in the first chapter of Economy and Society (1922). It amounts to the claim that social phenomena must be explained by showing how they result from individual actions, which in turn must be explained through reference to the intentional states that motivate the individual actors. It involves, in other words, a commitment to the primacy of...

Gödel's Incompleteness Theorems  from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy  (2015-1-21 9:48)

[Revised entry by Panu Raatikainen on January 20, 2015. Changes to: Main text, sup2.html] Godel's two incompleteness theorems are among the most important results in modern logic, and have deep implications for various issues. They concern the limits of provability in formal axiomatic theories. The first incompleteness theorem states that in any consistent formal system F within which a certain amount of arithmetic can be carried out, there are statements of the language of F which can neither be proved nor disproved in F....

Madhyamaka  from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy  (2015-1-17 11:33)

[Revised entry by Richard Hayes on January 16, 2015. Changes to: Bibliography] The Madhyamaka school of Buddhism, the followers of which are called Mādhyamikas, was one of the two principal schools of Mahāyāna Buddhism in India, the other school being the Yogācāra. The name of the school is a reference to the claim made of Buddhism in general that it is a middle path (madhyamā pratipad) that avoids the two extremes of eternalism - the doctrine that all things exist because of an eternal essence - and...

Indexicals  from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy  (2015-1-17 11:20)

[Revised entry by David Braun on January 16, 2015. Changes to: Main text, Bibliography] An indexical is, roughly speaking, a linguistic expression whose reference can shift from context to context. For example, the indexical 'you' may refer to one person in one context and to another person in another context. Other paradigmatic examples of indexicals are 'I', 'here', 'today', 'yesterday', 'he', 'she', and 'that'. Two speakers who utter a...

Religion and Political Theory  from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy  (2015-1-16 15:28)

[Revised entry by Chris Eberle and Terence Cuneo on January 15, 2015. Changes to: Main text, Bibliography, notes.html] When the well-known political theorist Leo Strauss introduced the topic of politics and religion in his reflections, he presented it as a problem - the "theologico-political problem" he called it (Strauss 1997).[1] The problem, says Strauss, is primarily one about authority: Is political authority to be grounded in the...

Teleological Arguments for God's Existence  from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy  (2015-1-16 10:58)

[Revised entry by Del Ratzsch and Jeffrey Koperski on January 15, 2015. Changes to: Main text, Bibliography, notes.html] Some phenomena within nature exhibit such exquisiteness of structure, function or interconnectedness that many people have found it natural - if not inescapable - to see a deliberative and directive mind behind those phenomena. The mind in question, being prior to nature itself, is typically taken to be supernatural. Philosophically inclined thinkers have both historically and at present labored to shape the relevant intuition into a more formal,...

Propositional Dynamic Logic  from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy  (2015-1-14 9:09)

[Revised entry by Nicolas Troquard and Philippe Balbiani on January 13, 2015. Changes to: Main text, Bibliography, bisimilar-LTS-tras.png] Logics of programs are modal logics arising from the idea of associating with each computer program a of a programming language a modality [a]. This idea stems from the line of works by Engeler [1967], Hoare [1969], Yanov [1959], and others who formulated and studied logical languages in which the properties of program connectives can be expressed. The algorithmic logic (AL) first developed by Salwicki [1970] and the dynamic logic (DL)...

John Duns Scotus  from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy  (2015-1-13 14:45)

[Revised entry by Thomas Williams on January 12, 2015. Changes to: Main text, Bibliography] John Duns Scotus (1265/66 - 1308) was one of the most important and influential philosopher-theologians of the High Middle Ages. His brilliantly complex and nuanced thought, which earned him the nickname "the Subtle Doctor," left a mark on discussions of such disparate topics as the semantics of religious language, the problem of universals, divine illumination, and the nature of human freedom. This essay first lays out what is known about Scotus's life and the dating...