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Actualism  from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy  (2015-1-1 16:17)

[Revised entry by Christopher Menzel on December 31, 2014. Changes to: Main text, Bibliography, notes.html] Actualism is a widely-held view in the metaphysics of modality. To understand the thesis of actualism, consider the following example. Imagine a race of beings - call them 'Aliens' - that is very different from any life-form that exists anywhere in the universe; different enough, in fact, that no actually existing thing could have been an Alien, any more than a given gorilla could have been a...

Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite  from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy  (2015-1-1 11:03)

[Revised entry by Kevin Corrigan and L. Michael Harrington on December 31, 2014. Changes to: Main text, Bibliography] Dionysius, or Pseudo-Dionysius, as he has come to be known in the contemporary world, was a Christian Neoplatonist who wrote in the late fifth or early sixth century CE and who transposed in a thoroughly original way the whole of Pagan Neoplatonism from Plotinus to Proclus, but especially that of Proclus and the Platonic Academy in Athens, into a distinctively new Christian context....

Assertion  from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy  (2015-1-1 10:44)

[Revised entry by Peter Pagin on December 31, 2014. Changes to: Main text, Bibliography, notes.html] An assertion is a speech act in which something is claimed to hold, for instance that there are infinitely many prime numbers, or, with respect to some time t, that there is a traffic congestion on Brooklyn Bridge at t, or, of some person x with respect to some time t, that x has a tooth ache at t. The concept of assertion has occupied a central place in the philosophy of language, since it is often thought that making assertions is the use of language most crucial to linguistic meaning. In recent years, by contrast, most of the interest in...

Probability in Medieval and Renaissance Philosophy  from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy  (2014-12-30 10:22)

[New Entry by Rudolf Schuessler on December 29, 2014.] Probability-related terminology played an important role in medieval and Renaissance philosophy. Terms such as 'probable' (probabilis), 'credible' (credibilis) or 'truth-like' (verisimilis) were used to assess philosophical claims, qualify uncertain conclusions, gauge the force of arguments and temper academic disagreement. Beyond that, they had a significant impact on the regulation of legal proceedings, moral action...

Egoism  from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy  (2014-12-25 9:10)

[Revised entry by Robert Shaver on December 24, 2014. Changes to: Main text, Bibliography] Egoism can be a descriptive or a normative position. Psychological egoism, the most famous descriptive position, claims that each person has but one ultimate aim: her own welfare. Normative forms of egoism make claims about what one ought to do, rather than describe what one does do. Ethical egoism claims that it is necessary and sufficient for an action to be morally right that it maximize one's self-interest. Rational egoism claims that it is necessary and sufficient for an...

Phenomenological Approaches to Self-Consciousness  from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy  (2014-12-25 8:29)

[Revised entry by Shaun Gallagher and Dan Zahavi on December 24, 2014. Changes to: Main text, Bibliography, notes.html] On the phenomenological view, a minimal form of self-consciousness is a constant structural feature of conscious experience. Experience happens for the experiencing subject in an immediate way and as part of this immediacy, it is implicitly marked as my experience. For phenomenologists, this immediate and first-personal givenness of experiential phenomena is accounted for in terms of a pre-reflective self-consciousness. In the most basic...

Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Value  from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy  (2014-12-25 8:18)

[Revised entry by Michael J. Zimmerman on December 24, 2014. Changes to: Main text, Bibliography, notes.html] Intrinsic value has traditionally been thought to lie at the heart of ethics. Philosophers use a number of terms to refer to such value. The intrinsic value of something is said to be the value that that thing has "in itself," or "for its own sake," or "as such," or "in its own right." Extrinsic value is value that is not intrinsic....

Forgiveness  from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy  (2014-12-24 9:23)

[Revised entry by Paul M. Hughes on December 23, 2014. Changes to: Main text, Bibliography] Forgiveness has over the past forty or so years engendered the interest of scholars and practitioners in such disparate fields as psychology, law, politics, international affairs, sociology, and philosophy. This article is concerned with what philosophers have had to say about forgiveness within secular ethical frameworks and, to a lesser extent, the Christian religious tradition....

Liberalism  from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy  (2014-12-23 15:24)

[Revised entry by Gerald Gaus, Shane D. Courtland, and David Schmidtz on December 22, 2014. Changes to: Main text, Bibliography] As soon as one examines it, 'liberalism' fractures into a variety of types and competing visions. In this entry we focus on debates within the liberal tradition. We begin by (1) examining different interpretations of liberalism's core commitment - liberty. We then consider (2) the longstanding debate between the 'old' and the 'new' liberalism. In section (3) we turn to the more recent controversy about whether liberalism is a...

The Philosophy of Childhood  from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy  (2014-12-23 9:17)

[Revised entry by Gareth Matthews and Amy Mullin on December 22, 2014. Changes to: Main text, Bibliography] The philosophy of childhood has recently come to be recognized as an area of inquiry analogous to the philosophy of science, the philosophy of history, the philosophy of religion, and the many other "philosophy of" subjects that are already considered legitimate areas of philosophical study. In addition, philosophical study of related topics (such as parental rights, duties and responsibilities) has flourished in recent years. The philosophy of...